Optical techniques for examination of biological tissue

ABSTRACT

Methods and systems are described that examine tissue positioned between input ports and a detection port. At lease one source of a visible or infrared wavelength is provided that introduces electromagnetic radiation into the subject. The detection port is optically coupled to a detector that is connected to a detector circuit. Radiation intensities are selected for introduction at the input ports to define a null plane in the tissue. The detection port is positioned relative to the null plane. Radiation is introduced into the subject at the first input port and the radiation that migrates through the tissue is detected. The detector circuit stores a first detector signal corresponding to the first detected radiation. Radiation is introduced at the second input port and is detected. The first detector signal is subtracted from a second detector signal corresponding to the second detected radiation to obtain processed data.

This application is a continuation of U.S. application 09/561,656, filedon May 2, 2000, which is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No.09/170,833, filed on Oct. 13, 1998, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,058,324, whichis a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 08/849,202 filed on Jun.2, 1997, now U.S. Pat. No. 5,820,558, which is a continuation of PCTApplication PCT/US 95/15694, filed on Dec. 4, 1995, which is acontinuation-in-part of U.S. application Ser. No. 08/349,018, filed onDec. 2, 1994, now U.S. Pat. No. 5,673,701.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

This invention relates to examination and imaging of biological tissueusing visible or infra-red radiation.

Traditionally, potentially harmful ionizing radiation (for example,X-ray or γ-ray) has been used to image biological tissue. This radiationpropagates in the tissue on straight, ballistic tracks, i.e., scatteringof the radiation is negligible. Thus, imaging is based on evaluation ofthe absorption levels of different tissue types. For example, inroentgenography the X-ray film contains darker and lighter spots. Inmore complicated systems, such as computerized tomography (CT), across-sectional picture of human organs is created by transmitting X-rayradiation through a section of the human body at different angles and byelectronically detecting the variation in X-ray transmission. Thedetected intensity information is digitally stored in a computer whichreconstructs the X-ray absorption of the tissue at a multiplicity ofpoints located in one cross-sectional plane.

Near infra-red radiation (NIR) has been used to study non-invasively theoxygen metabolism in tissue (for example, the brain, finger, or earlobe). Using visible, NIR and infra-red (IR) radiation for medicalimaging could bring several advantages. In the NIR or IR range thecontrast factor between a tumor and a tissue is much larger than in theX-ray range. In addition, the visible to IR radiation is preferred overthe X-ray radiation since it is non-ionizing; thus, it potentiallycauses fewer side effects. However, with lower energy radiation, such asvisible or infra-red radiation, the radiation is strongly scattered andabsorbed in biological tissue, and the migration path cannot beapproximated by a straight line, making inapplicable certain aspects ofcross-sectional imaging techniques.

Several different approaches to NIR imaging have been suggested in thepast. One approach undertaken by Oda et al. in “Non-Invasive HemoglobinOxygenation Monitor and Computerized Tomography of NIR Spectrometry,”SPIE Vol. 1431, p. 284, 1991, utilizes NIR radiation in an analogous wayto the use of X-ray radiation in an X-ray CT. In this device, the X-raysource is replaced by three laser diodes emitting light in the NIRrange. The NIR-CT uses a set of photomultipliers to detect the light ofthe three laser diodes transmitted through the imaged tissue. Thedetected data are manipulated by a computer of the original X-ray CTscanner system in the same way as the detected X-ray data would be.

Different approaches were also suggested by S. R. Arriadge et al. in“Reconstruction Methods for Infra-red Absorption Imaging,” SPIE Vol.1431, p. 204, 1991; F. A. Grünbaum et al. in “Diffuse Tomography,” SPIEVol. 1431, p. 232, 1991; B. Chance et al., SPIE Vol. 1431 (1991), p. 84,p. 180, and p. 264; and others who recognized the scattering aspect ofthe non-ionizing radiation and its importance in imaging. None of thosetechniques have fully satisfied all needs in tissue examination.

In summary, there continues to be a need for an improved system whichutilizes visible or IR radiation of wavelengths sensitive to endogenousor exogenous pigments to examine or image biological tissue.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The invention relates to systems and methods for spectroscopicexamination of a subject positioned between input and detection ports ofthe spectroscopic system applied to the subject.

According to one aspect, the invention features a spectroscopic systemfor examination of tissue of a subject, including: at least one lightsource of electromagnetic radiation of a visible or infrared wavelengthselected to be scattered and absorbed while migrating in the tissue; atleast two input ports, optically coupled to the light source,constructed to introduce at selected input locations of the examinedtissue the radiation of known intensities that define a null plane inthe tissue; a detection port located at a selected detection location ofthe examined tissue relative to the null plane; a detector, opticallycoupled to the detection port, constructed to detect during operationthe radiation that has migrated in the examined tissue; a detectorcircuit connected to and receiving detection signal from the detector;the detector circuit including a sample-and-hold circuit and asubtraction circuit, both connected to the detector circuit, constructedto subtract detection signals corresponding to radiation that hasmigrated from a first input port to the detection port and from a secondinput port to the detection port, respectively, to obtain processeddata; and a processor, connected to and receiving the processed datafrom the subtraction circuit, adapted to evaluate the examined tissue.

According to another aspect, the invention features a spectroscopicsystem for examination of tissue of a subject, including: a source ofelectromagnetic radiation of a visible or infrared wavelength; an inputport, optically coupled to the light source, constructed to introduce ata selected input location of the examined tissue the radiation; adetector optically coupled to at least two detection ports located atselected detection locations defining a null plane in the examinedtissue, the detector constructed to detect radiation that has migratedin the examined tissue to the detection ports; a detector circuitconnected to and receiving detection signal from the detector, thedetector circuit including a sample-and-hold circuit and a subtractioncircuit; the detector circuit constructed to correlate emission of theradiation from the input port with detection of radiation scattered andabsorbed while migrating in the tissue at the first detection port, thedetected radiation being stored as a first detection signal; thedetector circuit further constructed to correlate emission of theradiation from the input port with detection of radiation scattered andabsorbed while migrating in the tissue at the second detection port, thedetected radiation being stored as a second detection signal; thesubtraction circuit constructed to subtract the detection signals; and aprocessor, connected to and receiving the processed data from thesubtraction circuit, constructed to evaluate the examined tissue.

Embodiments of the invention may include one or more of the followingadditional features.

The spectroscopic system may include intensity control means constructedto regulate intensities of radiation emitted from the first and secondinput ports. The intensity control means may be constructed to regulatethe intensities in a manner that sweeps the null plane over at least aportion of the volume of the examined tissue.

The spectroscopic system may preferably include positioning meansconstructed to displace the detection port to detection locationscorresponding to the null plane or positioning means constructed todisplace the input ports to selected locations.

The spectroscopic system may preferably include detector controllermeans constructed to changes the relative sensitivity of detection atthe first and second detection port in order to sweep the null planeover at least a portion of the volume of the examined tissue.

Preferably, the subtraction circuit includes an analog to digitalconverter, connected to the sample-and-hold circuit, constructed todigitize the detection signal to produce digital detection signal, thesubtraction circuit subtracting the digital detection signalscorresponding to radiation that has migrated from a first input port tothe detection port and from a second input port to the detection port,respectively, to obtain the processed data. The processor may preferablybe further adapted to locate, in the tissue volume, a tissue regionexhibiting different scattering or absorptive properties than the restof the examined tissue volume.

The input or detection ports may be preferably arranged in a lineararray. The input or detection ports may be preferably arranged a twodimensional array. The spectroscopic may preferably further include animage processor, connected to and receiving the processed data from theprocessor, constructed to store processed data corresponding todifferent combinations of input and detection ports and create imagedata; and a display, connected to the image processor, constructed todisplay the image data representing the examined tissue.

The wavelength may be preferably sensitive to an endogenous pigment ofthe examined tissue. The wavelength may be preferably sensitive to anexogenous pigment of the examined tissue.

In another general aspect, the invention features a scheme forspectroscopic examination of tissue including the steps of: providing atleast one light source of electromagnetic radiation of a visible orinfrared wavelength selected to be scattered and absorbed whilemigrating in the tissue, the source being optically connected to atleast two input ports, and a detection port optically connected to adetector, the detector connected to a detector circuit; positioning afirst input port and a second input port relative to selected inputlocations of a subject; selecting for each input port first and secondradiation intensities to be introduced to the tissue, the selectedradiation intensities defining a null plane in the tissue; positioningthe detection port relative to a selected detection location of theexamined tissue corresponding to the null plane, the input locations anddetection location defining a volume of the examined tissue of thesubject; introducing into the subject, at the first input port,radiation of the first intensity; detecting, at the detection port, thefirst radiation that has migrated in the examined tissue; storing, inthe detector circuit, a first detector signal corresponding to the firstdetected radiation; introducing into the subject, at the second inputport, radiation of the second intensity; detecting, at the detectionport, the second radiation that has migrated in the examined tissue;storing, in the detector circuit, a second detector signal correspondingto the second detected radiation; subtracting the first detector signalfrom the second detector signal to obtain processed data; and examiningthe tissue volume using the processed data.

The spectroscopic method may further include the step of selecting thefirst and second radiation intensities is preferably performed in amanner that sweeps the null plane over at least a portion of the volumeof the examined tissue and the step of positioning the detector todetection locations corresponding to the swept null plane.

In another general aspect, the invention features a scheme forspectroscopic examination of tissue including the steps of: providing asource of electromagnetic radiation of a visible or infrared wavelengthselected to be scattered and absorbed while migrating in the tissue, thesource being optically coupled to an input port, and providing at leasttwo detection ports optically coupled to at least one detector, thedetector connected to a detector circuit; positioning the input portrelative to selected input locations of the tissue; positioning a firstdetection port and a first detection port relative to selected detectionlocations of the examined tissue, the locations defining a null plane inthe tissue a volume of the examined tissue of the subject; introducinginto the tissue, at the input port, radiation of a selected intensityand a selected wavelength; detecting, at the first detection port,radiation that has migrated in the examined tissue and storing, in thedetector circuit, a first detector signal corresponding to the detectedradiation; detecting, at the second detection port, radiation that hasmigrated in the examined tissue and storing, in the detector circuit, asecond detector signal corresponding to the detected radiation; andsubtracting the first detector signal from the second detector signal toobtain processed data corresponding to properties of the tissue volume.

The detecting steps may be performed in a manner that changes therelative sensitivity of detection at the first and second detection portin order to sweep the null plane over at least a portion of the volumeof the examined tissue and the method may further include,simultaneously with the sweeping, positioning the input port to inputlocations corresponding to the swept null plane.

Further embodiments of the invention may include one or more of thefollowing features.

The first detector signal and the second detector signal are preferablystored and subtracted in an analog form by the detection circuit. Thespectroscopic method preferably further includes, before the storingsteps, converting the first and second detection signals to a digitalform, the subtracting step being performed digitally on the firstdetector signal and the second detector signal in an digital circuit.

The steps of positioning the input ports and the detection port at therespective selected locations preferably include placing the ports onthe surface of the examined tissue. The steps of positioning the inputports at the respective selected locations preferably include orientingthe input ports relative to the input locations thereby enablingintroduction of the radiation at the input locations of the examinedtissue. The step of orienting the input ports preferably includedirecting an optical element of the input ports to the input locations.The positioning steps are preferably performed in a manner that sweepsthe null plane and the detector over at least a portion of the volume ofthe examined tissue.

The spectroscopic method may further include locating, in the tissuevolume, a tissue region exhibiting different scattering or absorptiveproperties than the rest of the examined tissue volume. The method maypreferably further include imaging the examined tissue including thetissue region of different scattering or absorptive properties. Themethod may preferably further include displaying an image of theexamined tissue by utilizing to the processed data and relativelocations of the input ports and the output ports.

The method may preferably further include a step of introducing anexogenous pigment into the tissue and selecting a wavelength beingsensitive to the pigment. The exogenous pigment may be preferentiallyaccumulated in a tissue region exhibiting different scattering orabsorptive properties. The exogenous pigment may be fluorescing whenirradiated by selected wavelength, and the detecting steps may detectpreferentially radiation wavelength of the fluorescing pigment.

In general, according to another aspect of the invention, aspectroscopic system includes at least one light source adapted tointroduce, at multiple input ports, electromagnetic non-ionizingradiation of a known time-varying pattern of photon density and of awavelength selected to be scattered and absorbed while migrating in thesubject, the input ports being placed at selected locations on thesubject to probe a selected quality of the subject; radiation patterncontroller adapted to achieve selected a time relationship of theintroduced patterns to form resulting radiation that possesses asubstantial gradient in photon density as a result of the interaction ofthe introduced patterns emanating from the input ports, the radiationbeing scattered and absorbed in migration paths in the subject. Thesystem also includes a detector adapted to detect over time, at adetection port placed at a selected location on the subject, theradiation that has migrated in the subject; processor adapted to processsignals of the detected radiation in relation to the introducedradiation to create processed data indicative of the influence of thesubject upon the gradient of photon density; and the processor(evaluation means) adapted to examine the subject by correlating theprocessed data with the locations of the input and output ports.

According to another aspect of the invention, a spectroscopic systemincludes at least one light source adapted to introduce, at multipleinput ports, electromagnetic non-ionizing radiation of a knowntime-varying pattern of photon density and of a wavelength selected tobe scattered and absorbed while migrating in the subject, the inputports being placed at selected locations on the subject to probe aselected quality of the subject; radiation pattern controller adapted toachieve a selected time relationship of the introduced patterns to formresulting radiation that possesses a substantial gradient in photondensity as a result of the interaction of the introduced patternsemanating from the input ports, the radiation being scattered andabsorbed in migration paths in the subject. The system also includes adetector adapted to detect over time, at a detection port placed at aselected location on the subject, the radiation that has migrated in thesubject; displacement means adapted to move the detection port tovarious locations on a predetermined geometric pattern, the variouslocations being used to detect over time radiation that has migrated inthe subject; processor adapted to process signals of the detectedradiation in relation to the introduced radiation to create processeddata indicative of the influence of the subject upon the gradient ofphoton density; and the processor (evaluation means) adapted to examinethe subject by correlating the processed data with the locations of theinput and output ports.

According to another aspect of the invention, a spectroscopic systemincludes at least one light source adapted to introduce, at multipleinput ports, electromagnetic non-ionizing radiation of a knowntime-varying pattern of photon density and of a wavelength selected tobe scattered and absorbed while migrating in the subject, the inputports being placed at selected locations on the subject to probe aselected quality of the subject; radiation pattern controller adapted toachieve a selected time relationship of the introduced patterns to formresulting radiation that possesses a substantial gradient in photondensity as a result of the interaction of the introduced patternsemanating from the input ports, the radiation being scattered andabsorbed in migration paths in the subject. The system also includes atleast one detector adapted to detect over time, at multiple detectionports placed at selected locations on the subject, the radiation thathas migrated in the subject; processor adapted to process signals of thedetected radiation in relation to the introduced radiation to createprocessed data indicative of the influence of the subject upon thegradient of photon density, and the processor (evaluation means) adaptedto examine the subject by correlating the processed data with thelocations of the input and output ports.

Preferred embodiments of this aspect of the invention includedisplacement means adapted to move at least one of the detection portsto another location on a predetermined geometric pattern, the otherlocation being used to perform the examination of the subject.

Preferred embodiments of this aspect of the invention include rotationmeans adapted to rotate synchronously the optical input ports whileintroducing the resulting radiation along a predetermined geometricpattern, the input port rotation being used to perform the examinationof a region of the subject.

According to another aspect of the invention, a spectroscopic systemincludes a light source adapted to introduce, at an input port,electromagnetic non-ionizing radiation of a known time-varying patternof photon density and of a wavelength selected to be scattered andabsorbed while migrating in the subject, the input port being placed ata selected location on the subject to probe a selected quality of thesubject; detectors adapted to detect over time, at multiple detectionports placed at selected locations on the subject, the radiation thathas migrated in the subject; the time relationship of the detection overtime, at the detection ports, being selected to observe a gradient inphoton density formed as a result of the interaction of the introducedradiation with the subject. The system also includes processor adaptedto process signals of the detected radiation in relation to theintroduced radiation to create processed data indicative of theinfluence of the subject upon the gradient of photon density, and theprocessor (evaluation means) adapted to examine the subject bycorrelating the processed data with the locations of the input andoutput ports.

According to another aspect of the invention, a spectroscopic systemincludes a light source adapted to introduce, at an input port,electromagnetic non-ionizing radiation of a known time-varying patternof photon density and of a wavelength selected to be scattered andabsorbed by a fluorescent constituent while migrating in the subject,the input port being placed at a selected location on the subject tolocate the fluorescent constituent of the subject; detectors adapted todetect over time, at multiple detection ports placed at selectedlocations on the subject, fluorescent radiation that has migrated in thesubject. The system also includes processor adapted to process signalsof the detected radiation in relation to the introduced radiation tocreate processed data indicative of location of the fluorescentconstituent of the subject, and the processor (evaluation means) adaptedto examine the subject by correlating the processed data with thelocations of the input and output ports.

In certain preferred embodiments, the spectroscopic system furtherincludes an image processor, connected to and receiving the processeddata from the processor, constructed to store processed datacorresponding to different combinations of input and detection ports andcreate image data, the image data including data of the tissue region;and a display, connected to the image processor, constructed to displaythe image data representing the examined tissue including the tissueregion.

A displacement mechanism is adapted to move synchronously the opticalports and the detection ports to another location on a predeterminedgeometric pattern; this other location is used to perform theexamination of the subject.

The spectroscopic system also uses a wavelength sensitive to endogenousor exogenous pigments of the examined biological tissue.

The spectroscopic system also used to locate a fluorescent constituentof interest in the subject; the wavelength of the introduced radiationis selected to be absorbed in the fluorescent constituent, the detectedradiation is emitted from the fluorescent constituent and processed todetermine location of the fluorescent constituent.

The time-varying pattern of resulting radiation is formed by theintensity modulated radiation introduced from each of the input portshaving selected phase relationship that produces in at least onedirection a steep phase change and a sharp minimum in the intensity ofthe radiation.

The phase relationship of the introduced radiation patterns is 180degrees.

The modulation frequency of the introduced radiation has a value thatenables resolution of the phase shift that originates during migrationof photons in the subject.

Other features and advantages will become apparent from the followingdescription and from the claims.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWING

FIGS. 1 and 1A show diagrammatically a phase modulation imaging systemincluding several input ports and one detection port in accordance withthe present invention.

FIG. 2 is a block diagram of the phase modulation imaging systemincluding several input ports and several detection ports in accordancewith the present invention.

FIG. 2A depicts a phased array antenna that radiates a directional beam.

FIG. 2B depicts sequencing of the phases of an antiphase multi-elementarray to achieve an electronic scan of the photon density gradient inaccordance with the present invention.

FIG. 2C depicts four element antiphased array designed for a conicalscan of the photon density gradient in accordance with the presentinvention.

FIG. 2D depicts the input and output port arrangement of an imagingsystem in accordance with the present invention.

FIG. 3 depicts a phase modulation imaging system including an input portand several array detection ports in accordance with the presentinvention.

FIG. 4 is a block diagram of an alternative embodiment of a dualwavelength PMS system.

FIG. 4A is a schematic diagram of an oscillator circuit of FIG. 4.

FIG. 4B is a schematic diagram of a PMT heterodyne modulation and mixingnetwork shown in FIG. 4.

FIG. 4C is a schematic diagram of an AGC circuit shown in FIG. 4.

FIG. 4D is a schematic diagram of a phase detector circuit shown in FIG.4.

FIGS. 5A, 5B, and 5C illustrate changes in optical field propagating ina strongly scattering medium which includes a strongly absorbingcomponent.

FIG. 6 shows an experimental arrangement of a two element phased arrayused in an interference experiment.

FIGS. 6A, 6B, and 6C show detected interference patterns of twodiffusive waves.

FIG. 7 displays the phase shifts measured for a two element array (curveA), and for a single source (curve B).

FIG. 8A depicts an experimental arrangement of sources of a four elementphased array and a detector.

FIGS. 8B and 8C display the intensities and the phase shifts measuredfor the four element array of FIG. 8A, respectively.

FIG. 9A depicts an experimental arrangement of sources of a four elementphased array, a detector, and a strongly absorbing object.

FIGS. 9B, 9C display respectively the intensities and the phase shiftsmeasured for the four element array of FIG. 9A scanning absorbingobjects of different sizes.

FIG. 9D displays the phase shifts measured for the four element array ofFIG. 9A scanning absorbing objects of different absorption coefficients.

FIG. 10A displays an experimental arrangement of sources of a fourelement phased array, a detector, and two strongly absorbing objects.

FIG. 10B displays the phase shifts measured for the four element arrayof FIG. 10A scanning two absorbing objects of different sizes.

FIG. 11 shows diagrammatically a low frequency imaging system utilizinga one dimensional source array in accordance with the present invention.

FIG. 11A shows a circuit diagram of the low frequency imaging system ofFIG. 11.

FIGS. 12 and 13 show diagrammatically a low frequency imaging systemsutilizing a two dimensional source array in accordance with the presentinvention.

FIGS. 14 and 14A show a scanning system constructed for imaging ofbreast tissue.

DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS

Imaging system embodiments of the present invention based uponinterference effects of radiation migrating in a subject havingscattering and absorptive properties are shown in FIGS. 1, 2, and 3. Thesystems effectively utilize, in this scattering medium, a directionalbeam of visible or IR radiation generated and/or detected by an array ofsources and/or detectors, respectively. For instance, in the case of anarray of sources, each source is placed at a selected location in thearray and emits intensity modulated radiation, preferably coherentradiation from a laser diode, of a selected intensity and phase. Thecriteria for selecting the source locations, the intensities, and thephases of the respective sources is the shape of the desired beam thatat any time point possesses a substantial photon density gradientproduced by interference effects of radiation from the various sources.This gradient of photon density is localized and has directionalproperties. Overall, the resulting radiation formed by interference ofthe radiation of the individual sources migrates in a selected directionin the subject. In an antiphase system, the wavefront of the beam hassections of equal photon density separated by a sharp localized changein photon density. Selected different locations of the photon densitygradient are shown in FIG. 2B.

In general, the wavefront propagates in the selected direction in thesubject and the gradient of photon density is localized in one or moreplanes extending from the source array in a selected direction. If thesubject includes a localized object having different scattering andabsorptive properties from those of the surrounding environment, thepropagating radiated field is perturbed. This perturbation is detectedand from the source detector geometry the perturbing object can belocated.

In one preferred embodiment shown in FIGS. 1 and 1A, the imaging systemutilizes an array of laser diodes 12, 14, 16, and 18 for introducinglight into the tissue at selected locations. The geometry of opticalinput ports 11, 13, 15, 17 and of an optical output port 19 is selectedto examine a specific part of the tissue. From the known geometry of theoptical input ports and the detection port and from the shape of theintroduced and detected radiation, a computer can locate a hidden object9 of examined tissue 8 (For example, the head or breast). A masteroscillator 22, which operates at 200 MHz, excites laser diode 12 through18, that emit light of a selected wavelength (e.g., 760 nm). The lightfrom each laser diode is conducted to the respective input port placedon a subject via a set optical fibers. A detector 24 detects the lightthat has migrated through the examined tissue. Preferably, detector 24includes a photomultiplier tube (e.g., Hamamatsu R928) powered by a highvoltage supply which outputs about 900 V in order to ensure a high gain.A local oscillator 26 operating at a convenient offset frequency (e.g.,25 KHz) sends a signal to a mixer 28 and a reference signal to detector24. Accordingly, an output waveform 25 from detector 24 is at a carrierfrequency equal to the difference of the detected and referencefrequency, i.e., 25 KHz.

Detector 24 (for example, PMT Hamamatsu R928 or Hamamatsu R1645u)detects the scattered and absorbed light that has migrated through thesubject. Detection port 19 is located several centimeters from thelocation of the input ports. The PMT detector is connected to thesubject by the fiber optic guide, or, alternatively, may be directlyplaced on the subject. It has been found that the most cost-effectivedetector for measuring signals of frequencies on the order of 10⁸ Hz isHamamatsu R928. However, the Hamamatsu R1645u detector is preferred dueto its high precision. The second dynode of the PMT of detector 24 ismodulated by 200.025 MHz signal 27 so that the 25 KHz hetrodyned signal25 is received by a phase detector 30. Phase detector 30 also receivesreference signal 29 from mixer 28. If phase detector 30 is a lock-inamplifier then the output signals are the phase shift and the intensityof the detected signal. Both the phase shift and the intensity of thedetected light characterize the migration path of photons in the subject(e.g., the brain tissue).

Alternatively, a tunable dye laser or other laser source connected to awide band acousto-optical modulator operating at the carrier frequency,e.g., 200 MHz can be used instead of the laser diode. Theacousto-optical modulator modulates the intensity of the light emittedby the laser at the selected carrier frequency.

The invention also envisions using only one source of coherent lightthat irradiates one end of several optical fibers at the same time. Theother end of each fiber is placed on the subject at a selected inputport location. This source radiates light of a selected time varyingpattern. The phase relationship and the intensity of the light carriedby each fiber is varied by creating a time delay (e.g., different fiberlength) and by coupling different amounts of light into each fiber.

The imaging systems of FIGS. 1, 2, and 3 are shown to have a lightsource of a single wavelength; however, a dual wavelength imaging systemis also envisioned according to this invention. In the dual wavelengthimaging system two laser diodes or a tunable wavelength laser generatelight of two wavelengths that is coupled to an optical fiber. Such asystem will now be described.

A dual wavelength operation is shown in FIG. 4. The system includes amaster oscillator 60 operating at 200 MHz and an oscillator 62 operatingat 200.025 MHz which is offset 25 KHz from the master oscillatorfrequency. The offset frequency of 25 KHz is a convenient frequency forphase detection in this system; however, other offset frequencies ashigh as a few megahertz can be used. Oscillator 60 alternatively drivestwo laser diodes 64 and 66 using switches 61, 61 a, . . . These switchesare driven electronically to couple a selected wavelength into theoptical fiber and also to achieve a selected radiation pattern resultingfrom the radiation emanating from the individual fibers. An output 8 mmfiber coupler 72 collects photons for an R928 PMT detector 74. Thesecond dynode (shown in FIG. 3B) of PMT 74 is modulated with a 200.025MHz reference signal generated by oscillator 62 and amplified by anamplifier 63. Thus, the output signal of the PMT detector has afrequency of 25 KHz. PMT detector 74 alternately detects light of thetwo laser diodes that has migrated in the tissue and producescorresponding output signals, which are filtered by a filter 78 andleveled by an automatic gain control (AGC) circuit 79. A referencesignal of 25 KHz is produced in a mixer 65 by mixing the 200 and 200.025MHz oscillator signals. The reference 25 kHz signal is also leveledusing the second AGC 77 and fed into a phase detector 80. Phase detector80 generates a signal indicative of the phase of each output signalrelative to the phase of the reference signal. The outputs of phasedetector 80 are alternately selected by an electronic switch 82,filtered, and then input to an adder 84 and a subtractor 86 to producesum and difference signals proportional to <L>_(λ1)+<L>_(λ2) and<L>_(λ1)−<L>_(λ2). The difference and sum signals are then used tocalculate changes in the probed pigment and in the blood volume,respectively.

A schematic diagram of preferred oscillator 60 or 62 is shown in FIG.4A. This circuit has a drift of only 0.03 degrees/hr. (Weng, et al.,“Measurement of Biological Tissue Metabolism Using Phase ModulationSpectroscopic Measurement,” SPIE, Vol. 143, p. 161, 1991, which isincorporated herein by reference). The crystal is neutralized, whichenables operation at resonance, and thus achieves long-term stability.The respective crystals of oscillators 60 and 62 are offset from eachother by 25 kHz. This circuit provides a sufficient output to directlydrive a 5 mW laser diode.

A modulation circuit 75 for the second dynode of the PMT is shown inFIG. 4B. This circuit uses a resonant circuit 75 a with an impedance of20,000 ohms instead of the usual 50 Ω load with very high powerdissipation, providing a 50 V drive of the photomultiplier dynode whiledissipating only a few watts of power.

To obtain stable operation of the phase detector, a stable input signalis required. The 25 KHz AGC circuit 77 illustrated in FIG. 4C includesan MC 1350 integrated circuit U1, featuring wide range AGC for use as anamplifier. The signal amplitude is controlled by a feedback network, asshown. A major reason for the accurate detection of phase changes by thePMT system is that the phase detector input signal level is kept nearlyconstant by the AGC circuit. Since the input voltage change of between 2and 6 volts causes variation in the phase shift of only 0.2%, the AGCcircuit eliminates the need for a very stable high voltage power supply.

A preferred phase detector circuit is shown in FIG. 4D. Two sinusoidalsignals (the measurement signal and the reference signal) aretransformed to a square wave signal by a Schmitt trigger circuit 80 a.The phase of the square wave signal is shifted by an RC change (composedof R11, R12, C8), which makes it possible to change the measuring range.The detector further includes a 74HC221 integrated circuit. The lock-inamplifier technique obtained to derive the difference of the phase andamplitude of the two signals has the highest signal to noise ratiopossible for this type of equipment.

The above-described systems utilize the carrier frequency on the orderof 10⁸ Hz which is sufficiently fast to resolve the phase shift of thedetected light. The characteristic time, the time it takes for a photonto migrate between an input port and an output port, is severalnanoseconds. The sensitivity of the system is high, approximately 70°per nanosecond or 3° per centimeter change of pathlength, as observed inexperimental models. Selection of the modulation frequency also dependson the desired penetration depth and resolution of the imaging systemthat will be described below. If deep penetration is desired, lowmodulation frequency (e.g., 40 MHz) is selected, and if shallowpenetration is needed, modulation frequencies as high as 10⁹ Hz can beused.

Referring to FIGS. 1 and 1A, a master oscillator 22 operates at amodulation frequency in the range of 40 to 400 MHz selected according tothe desired penetration depth of the optical field. The array of laserdiodes 12, 14, 16, and 18 generates a highly directional radiationpattern, which is employed in the tissue examination.

In one preferred mode of operation, laser diodes 12 to 18 operate in aphased array pattern which is introduced into the tissue and detected bya single PMT detector 30. Master oscillator 22 operating at 200 MHzdrives a multi-channel phased splitter which gives outputs atpredetermined phases. Input ports 11 through 17 are located at selecteddistances and an appropriate phasing of the array creates a directionalbeam and enables scanning of the optical field in two dimensions acrossthe tissue, as shown in FIGS. 2A, 2B, and 2D. After migrating throughthe tissue, the optical field is collected in a large area fiber onselected locations 19. The detected signals are heterodyned in the PMTdetector 24 by utilizing the output of local oscillator 26, operating ata 25 kHz offset frequency, to detector 24. The resulting 25 kHz signalis phase detected with respect to the output signal 29 of mixer 28 anddetector 24. Phase detector 30 outputs the phase and the intensity ofsignal 25. The detected phase shifts and intensities are stored and usedfor construction of an image of the subject. This is performed bycomputer control 34, which governs the operation of the system.

FIG. 2 depicts a phase modulation imaging system comprising an inputport array for introducing radiation and detection port array fordetecting radiation that has migrated in the subject. The operation ofthe system is controlled by computer control 34, which coordinates atransmitter unit 32 with a receiver unit 42. Transmitter unit 32comprises several sources of visible or IR radiation adapted tointroduce a selected time-varying pattern of photon density into subject8 by array of input ports 31, 33, 35, and 37. Receiver unit 42 detectsradiation that has migrated in the subject from the input port array toan array of detectors 39, 41, 42, and 47.

The radiation sources of transmitter unit 32 are intensity modulated ata frequency in the range of 40 MHz to 200 MHz, as described for theimaging system of FIG. 1. Receiver unit 42 detects and processes theradiation using the same principles of the phase and amplitude detectionas described above. The signal detected at individual ports can bephased using appropriate delays.

Several modes of operation of the transmitter array and receiver arrayare described in FIGS. 2A, 2B, 2C, and 2D. Referring to FIG. 2A, it hasbeen known, that for a simple horizontal linear array of N identicalelements radiating amplitude modulated light spaced a distance, d,apart. The radiating wavefront is created by the interference effect. Ifall elements radiate in phase the wavefront propagates in a directionperpendicular to the array. However, by appropriately phasing theradiating elements, the resulting beam can scan space in two dimensions.We consider the phases of the signal along the plane A—A whose normalmakes an angle θ₀ with respect to the array normal. The phase of thesignal from the first radiator lags the phase of the second radiator bya phase angle (2π/λ)d sin θ₀ because the signal from the second radiatorhas to travel a distance d sin θ₀ longer than the signal from the firstradiator to reach plane A—A. Similarly, the phase of the signal from then^(th) radiator leads that from the first radiator by an angle n(2π/λ))dsin θ₀. Thus, the signals from the various radiators can be adjusted tobe in-phase along the A—A plane, if the phase of each radiator isincreased by (2π/λ)d sin θ₀. Consequently, at a point on the wavefrontin the far field of the antenna array the signals from the N radiatorswill add up in phase, i.e., the intensity of the total normalized signalis a sum of the signals from the individual sources. The constructedpattern has a well defined directional characteristic and a wellpronounced angular dependence, i.e., the antenna pattern has a welldefined transfer characteristic of the antenna with respect to the angleθ₀.

FIG. 2B depicts an arrangement of phases for the sources the system ofFIG. 2 operating in one preferred mode of operation. The array of fivesources is divided into two or more portions that are phased 180° apart.Each portion has at least one source. The sources of each portionradiate amplitude modulated light of equal intensity and are spaced sothat the resulting beam of two or more equally phased sources has asubstantially flat wavefront, i.e., no gradient of photon density. Onthe other hand, there is a sharp 180° phase transition, a large gradientin photon density between two antiphased portions of the array. Thus,the radiated field possesses an amplitude null and a phase transition of180°, which is due to the large gradient of photon density.

Electronic scanning is performed by appropriately varying theapportionment of 0° and 180° phases on the sources. The five elementarray of FIG. 2B can have the 180° phase transition along four differentparallel planes extending from the array. Scanning is achieved byelectronically switching the sources by 180°, so that the photon densitygradient moves in the direction parallel to the location of the sources.

Using the principles described in FIGS. 2A and 2B, a conical scan of adirectional beam possessing at least one substantial photon densitygradient can be accomplished using a four element antiphased array, asshown in FIG. 2C. The laser diodes are antiphased using a push pulltransformer. The phasing and amplitude of four laser diodes S₁, S₂, S₃,and S₄ arranged into a two dimensional array is modified sequentiallyusing the switches Sw₁, Sw₂, Sw₃, and Sw₆ and inductances L₁, L₂, L₃,and L₄.

FIG. 2D shows a possible arrangement of the transmitter array and thereceiver array. The above described directional beam enters subject 8 atthe transmitter array location and is pointed to hidden absorber 9 whichperturbs the migrating beam. The field perturbation is measured by thereceiver array. Scanning of the transmitter array or the receiver arrayis envisioned by the present invention.

A hidden absorber that includes a fluorescent constituent is detectedusing a selected excitation wavelength of the laser sources of thetransmitter array. Then, the radiation is absorbed, and almost instantlya fluorescent radiation of a different wavelength is re-emitted. There-emitted radiation propagating in all directions is detected by thereceiver array.

FIG. 3 depicts a phase modulation imaging system comprising one inputport and several arrays of detection ports. This system operatescomparably to the systems of FIGS. 1 and 2. The 754 nm light of a laserdiode 48 is amplitude modulated using master oscillator 22. The light iscoupled to subject 8 using an input port 49. The amplitude modulatedlight migrates in the subject and is scattered from hidden object 9. Itis also expected that hidden object 9 has a different effective index ofrefraction than subject 8. The migrating radiation is governed by thelaws of diffusional wave optics that are described below. The scatteredradiation migrates in several directions and is detected by detectionsystems 50, 52, and 54.

Ports 51, 53, and 55 of the detection systems can include either largearea fibers or arrays if detection ports. If large area fibers are usedthen detector systems 50, 52, and 54 correspond to detector 24 ofFIG. 1. If arrays detection ports are used, then each of detectorsystems 50, 52, and 54 includes several individual PMT detectors. ThePMT detectors of each detector system are phased utilizing a selectedphase mode, as described above. The phasing is controlled by thecomputer control. The detected signals are heterodyned at the PMT's andsent to a phase detector 58. Phase detector 58 detects alternatively theheterodyned signals using a switch 56. Operation of phase detector 58 issimilar to the operation of phase detector 30 of FIG. 1. The detectedphase and amplitude are alternatively sent to the computer control usinga switch 56 a. Even thought only one phase detector is shown in FIG. 3,the invention envisions use of several phase detectors.

If hidden absorber 9 includes a fluorescent constituent, laser diode 48is selected to introduce an excitation wavelength (e.g., 754 nm). Theintroduced, intensity modulated radiation, excites the fluorescentconstituent which re-emits radiation in all directions, as shown in FIG.3. The re-emitted radiation is detected using detector systems 50, 52,and 54. To increase the system resolution, each detector can befurnished with an interference filter selected to pass only thefluorescent radiation.

The interference of several waves, as described in FIG. 2A, has beenlong known in a non-scattering medium, wherein the radiation propagateson a straight line, but not in a strongly scattering medium. Referringto FIGS. 6, 6A, 6B, and 6C, in a simple experiment, interference of twodifferent diffusive waves in a strongly scattering medium wasdemonstrated. Propagation of visible IR radiation in a scattering mediumsuch as tissue can be described by diffusion of photons, and thus wedescribe it as a diffusive wave.

Referring to FIG. 6, the two laser diodes were separated at a distanceof 4 cm and 1.2 cm from the detection port. The intensity modulatedlight of the two laser diodes at frequency 200 MHz was sent through twooptical fibers to a container with an Intralipid™ suspension. The sourcedetector distance was varied by moving the optical port of the detectionfiber along a line parallel to the position of the sources. FIGS. 6A,6B, and 6C show measured maxima and minima of the optical fieldmigrating in the medium. This data demonstrates interference between twodiffusive waves created by two coherent emitting sources of phasedifference 180 degrees. FIG. 7 summarizes the experiment, wherein thedisplacement of the detector is plotted against the phase shift measuredby the detector. The phase shift displays the steepest part of thetrace, curve A, (slope of about 360°/cm) at the displacement of about2.25 cm. Curve B is measured with an optical field of source S₂. Here,the measured slope is about 30°/cm. When comparing curves A and B wedemonstrate much higher sensitivity of the null detection of the twoelement array contrasted with a diminished sensitivity to the detectordisplacement when using a single source arrangement. The sensitivity ofthe two source arrangement is increased by about a factor of 10. Thesensitivity is further increased when using four or more element phasedarray, which sharpens the photon density gradient and thus provides ahigher resolution for locating the hidden object.

In a strongly scattering medium, the emitted photons undergo a largenumber of collisions and their migration can be determined by applyingthe diffusion equation. The diffusion equation for photons in auniformly scattering medium was solved by E. Gratton et al., “Thepossibility of a near infrared optical imaging system using frequencydomain methods.” in Mind Brian Imaging Program, Japan 1990; and by J.Fishkin et al., “Diffusion of intensity modulated near-infrared light inturbid media”, SPIE Vol. 1413 (1991) p. 122. A solution of the diffusionequation was obtained for the light of a point source (at r=0) radiatingS(1+M exp[−i(ωt+e)] photons, wherein S is the source strength(photons/sec.), M is the modulation of the source at frequency ω, and eis an arbitrary phase. The photon intensity can be calculated asI(r,t)=c * ρ(r,t),wherein ρ(r,t) is the photon density and c=10⁸ m/s is the velocity oflight.

When solving the diffusion equation using a spherical-harmonicsapproximation in a non-absorbing medium for the density of photonsπ(r,t) thanI(r,t)=(I ₀ /Dr)+(I ₀ /Dr)exp[−r(ω/2cD)^(1/2)]×exp[ir(ω/2cD)^(1/2)−i(ωt+e)],wherein the diffusion constant D is ½ of the mean free path. In theabsence of an amplitude modulated signal (ω=0) the solution correspondsto a spherical wave propagating without attenuation. For a non-zerofrequency, the amplitude of the signal at a frequency ω decreasesexponentially. The light wave front the emitted advances at the constantvelocity VV=(2Dcω)^(1/2)and has wavelengthλ=2π(2cD/ω)^(1/2)

The above equations show that higher modulation frequencies yieldshorter effective wavelengths, and smaller diffusion constants also giveshorter effective wavelengths. In principle, short wavelengths can beobtained using high frequency modulated waves in a very turbid medium.However, the amplitude of the modulated wave decreases exponentiallywith the modulation frequency. Therefore, the best resolution, i.e., theshortest wavelength, is obtained using the highest frequency which stillgives a measurable signal. The diffusion process limits the penetrationdepth at any given modulation frequency, because of the exponentialdecrease of the wave's amplitude, and also decreases the velocity oflight propagation.

The above described diffusion wave approach treats amplitude modulatedlight waves in scattering media using the framework of wave optics. Thephoton intensity, calculated as superposition of different waves,constitutes a scalar field, propagating at a constant velocity. At anygiven modulation frequency, the wave optics phenomenology of scalarfields is valid. Therefore, in the frequency-domain, the measurement andanalysis of light diffusing in tissues from several sources will undergoconstructive and destructive interference. Furthermore, wave refractionoccurs at a boundary between two different tissues. It causes adeviation of the direction of propagation of the wave front, and thusthere is a change in the amplitude and phase shift of the propagationwave. The direction change is a function of the ratio of the effectiveindex of refraction in the two tissues. In diffusional wave optics, onthe other hand, the wave's amplitude is exponentially attenuated as thewave propagates in the scattering medium. This attenuation is inaddition to the exponential attenuation caused by finite absorption ofthe medium.

Amplitude modulated waves propagate coherently in the scattering medium;this is crucial for image reconstruction. It is possible to accuratelymeasure in real time, the average intensity, amplitude, and phase of thewave front over a large area using a single detector or an array ofdetectors applying well-established frequency-domain methods.

The emitters are varied sequentially in phase starting with the firstemitter in the line and followed by subsequent emitters. Each emitteremits a spherical wave and propagation of the resultant beam isperpendicular to the wavefront. If all the transmitter delays are equal,the beam travels straight ahead. Delay lines which produce variabletransmitter delays can be used to obtain appropriate phasing forsteering the beam across the tissue. The same principle can apply duringreception.

There are two important aspects of imaging as envisioned by the presentinvention. The first is a geometrical aspect and the second is phasingof the transmitters and receivers.

It is also possible to construct a two-dimensional array fortwo-dimensional pointing (e.g., FIG. 2C). The multiplexing switches usedwith these arrays can be constructed as an integral part of the arrayand can consist of field effect transistors arranged so that access toany element may be obtained by the application of two adverse signals.

In addition to electronic scanning, the two-dimensional scanning can beachieved by moving the array of sources and detectors in a regularpre-determined pattern in a plane parallel to that being investigated inthe subject. For maximum detection, the detector is places in the planeof the photon density gradient of the resulting field created by thearray of sources. The plane of the photon density gradient is swept asthe array moves. In this sweeping action, as a strongly or weaklyabsorbing object enters the radiation field, the detector registers afield imbalance due to the above described refraction of the propagatingradiation. A two-dimensional image is formed by storing the informationwhile the probe is moved across the subject. Several scans in differentimaging planes are envisioned by the invention. If the system isduplicated or time shared in two other faces of a cube, an algorithmwould be used to provide a 3-dimensional picture of the object bytriangulation, as known in the art. The data storage is accomplishedelectronically.

The detector detects the intensity and the phase shift of the radiationthat has migrated in the subject. The phase shift depends on the tissueproperties, i.e., absorption and scattering. For the low frequencies thephase shift is proportional to ((l−g)μ_(s)/μ_(a))^(1/2) and for the highfrequencies proportional to 1/μ_(a). To obtain desired penetrationdepth, appropriate frequency for both master oscillator 22 and localoscillator 26 is chosen; however, the phase relationship of the laserdiodes is maintained.

Different types of phased arrays are designed for optimal examinationand imaging of different human organs (e.g., human head or breast). Theamplitude and phase of the signals can be monitored on a precisionoscilloscope. In order to scan the phased array past a fixed object ofapproximately known position, as in needle localization procedures, thelocation of the input and output ports will be scanned past the objectand the position of maximum phase shift will be recorded inone-dimension; however, detection in two and three dimension can beperformed in the same way.

In the preferred mode of operation, the array of sources is phased 180°apart, as shown in FIG. 8A. There is a sharp 180° transition of photondensity wave, a large gradient in photon density, from S₂, S₂ sources tothe S₃, S₄ sources. Thus, the radiated field gives an amplitude null anda phase transition of 180° corresponding to the y-z plane, i.e.,perpendicular to the detector. If a larger number of similarly phasedsources is used, the transitions are even sharper. The array produces auniform photon density pattern on each side of the array, as shown inFIGS. 8B and 8C. If an absorbing object is placed in this directionalfield of diffusing optical waves, imbalance in the photon density ismeasured. The detection of a hidden object is accomplished bytranslating the experimental transmitter-receiver system of FIG. 8A.

In addition to the mechanical scanning achieved by moving of theinput-output port system, electronic scanning can be performed using themultiple source and multiple detector system of FIG. 2. As shown in FIG.2B for an array of five sources, there is a 180° phase transition in theresulting migrating field due to the 180° phase difference between theantiphased sources radiating amplitude modulated light. The plane of the180° phase transition can be shifted in parallel by appropriatelyvarying the apportionment of 0° and 180° phases on the sources. This isperformed by sequentially switching the phase of the sources by 180°. Ineach case, the detection port located on this plane is used forcollecting the data. As the sources are electronically switched by 180°,the detection array can be also electronically switched from onedetection port to another. The signal from the receiving optical fiberis coupled to one shared PMT detector. However, the system can alsoinclude several detectors. If the systems of FIG. 1 or 1A are used, theelectronic source scanning can be combined with synchronous mechanicalmovement of the detection port.

In general, the invention utilizes the photon density gradient createdin the migrating field since it increases the resolution of thedetection. As known to one skilled in the art, the photon densitygradient formed by interference effects of the individual wave can becreated not only by appropriate phasing of the sources but also by othermethods such as appropriately spacing the sources, creating an imbalancein the radiated intensity of the individual sources, and other.

FIG. 8A shows the arrangement of the input ports 11 to 17 and detectionport 19 of FIG. 1. As described above, light of each laser diode 12through 18 is intensity modulated at the 200 MHz frequency. Wavelengthof the intensity modulated radiation is

$\lambda = \left( \frac{4\pi\;{c/n}}{3f\;\mu_{s}} \right)^{\frac{1}{2}}$wherein f is the modulation frequency of 200 MHz, μ_(s) is thescattering factor which is approximately 10 cm⁻¹ in an Intralipid™solution with refractive index n, and c is 3×10⁸ cm/s. Thus, theexpected wavelength is about 7 cm.The input ports S₁, S₂, S₃, and S₄ are set 3.5 cm apart and areanti-phased by 180° using a push pull transformer. The antiphased arraycreates a large gradient in photon density chosen to take advantage ofthe destructive interference with the null detection. The laser diodesemitting 754 nm light are intensity modulated at 200 MHz using masteroscillator 22, and the local oscillator 26 is operating at 200.025 MHzto perform the dynode modulation of PMT detector 24. The detectedintensities and phase shifts of an x-direction scan (FIG. 8A) ofdetection port 19 are plotted in FIGS. 8B and 8C, respectively. Asexpected, the intensity has a sharp minimum in between sources S₂ and S₃where the phase is changed 180°. The peak width at half maximum is about2 cm. In addition to the x-direction scan of the detection port, thedetection port was scanned in y-direction wherein, as expected, novariation was observed.

Referring to FIG. 9A, cylindrical objects of different diameter, d, werescanned using the previously described phased array. The objects wereplaced in the middle of the linear array displaced 2.5 cm from thex-axis. The detection port was located on the x-axis and each object wasmoved parallel to the x-axis at the 2.5 cm y displacement. The intensityand phase shift detected at different locations are plotted in FIGS. 9Band 9C, respectively. The intensity pattern for each moving object hastwo maximum and one minimum when the scanned object was located at x=0,y=2.5 point during its scan along the x-axis. At this point, a largephase change is detected, as shown in FIG. 9C. The phase detection hasinherently larger resolution of a localized absorber; a hidden object ofsize as small as 0.8 mm can be detected.

The response due to different absorption of the hidden object wasstudied using a 5 mm cylinder of different absorption coefficientscanned by the 4 element phased array of FIG. 9A. The detected phasechange is shown in FIG. 9D. The 5 mm black rod displays the largestphase change due to its high absorption, and the cylinder filled withcardiogreen 3.5 mg/l which has absorption coefficient μ_(a)=200 cm⁻¹shows the smallest phase change. In scanning of a hidden object, theseexperiments correspond to mechanically displacing the source detectorsystem, or electronically scanning the subject.

Scanning of two objects of a different diameter is shown in FIG. 10A.Two cylinders of different diameter are scanned across the four elementphased array located on the x-axis. The detection port in located at y=5cm. In FIG. 10B the detected phase change in plotted against thedisplacement of these objects. Curve A represents the phase change oftwo cylinders of diameters 5 mm and 10 mm separated 3 cm apart. Curve Bwas measured using 16 mm cylinder instead the 5 mm cylinder. In thiscase, wherein the two cylinder separation is smaller, the phase detectorcan not resolve the two objects.

The imaging resolution is increased by increasing the number of elementsof the phased array, since the main lobe of the resultant beam becomesmuch sharper, the gradient of photon density is larger. Phased arrays ofdifferent number of elements and different shapes are used for imagingdifferent organs. For example, in tumor imaging, the four element phasedarray of FIG. 8A having an approximately linear shape can be used forimaging of the brain. On the other hand, a rectangular or a circularphased array would be used for imaging of a hidden tumor in the breast.The modulation frequency and the element spacing is adjusted to obtainproper focussing in each case.

Alternative embodiments of suitable optical imagers are disclosed in aPCT application PCT/US93/05868, filed Jun. 17, 1993, and published asInternational Publication No. WO 93/25145, which is incorporated byreference as if fully set forth herein.

In another embodiment, the present invention envisions imaging systemsable to calculate the average migration pathlengths. Referring to FIGS.1 and 1A, in one mode of operation, the signal from master oscillator 22is mixed with a set of four local oscillators operating at offsetfrequencies of 25, 35, 45, and 55 kHz (not shown in FIGS. 1 and 1A);there is one local oscillator operating at an offset frequencyassociated with each laser diode. Thus, the output of each laser diodeis intensity modulated at the master oscillator frequency plus thefrequency of its local oscillator. The intensity modulated radiation ofeach laser diode is simultaneously coupled to the tissue.

Detection of the optical field is performed in the same way as describedfor the other embodiments. The detected signal is heterodyne mixeddirectly at the PMT detector. The detector outputs signals at fourdifferent offset frequencies associated with each diode. These signalsare fed into the phase detector wherein the phase and the intensity ofthe detected radiation are measured. There are either four phasedetectors (only one detector is shown in FIG. 1) operating alternativelyat different frequencies or one phased detector is used in a time sharedmode of operation. The phase shift and the intensity of a detectedheterodyned signal depend on the tissue through which the scattered andabsorbed radiation migrated. When using several radiation sources ofselected carrier frequency and phase, the resulting radiation hasdirectional properties and the detected intensity and phase shift dependon the pathlength along which the radiation was scattered and absorbed.The tissue properties are determined from the detected phase shift andintensity values and from the known input ports and detection portgeometries. The measured average pathlengths, <L>, can also bedetermined. The detected phase shift is converted to an effectivemigration pathlength <L> by using the low frequency approximationθ=2πf<L>n/c, wherein f is the modulation frequency, c is the speed oflight (3×10⁸ cm/s), and n is the refractive index of the medium. (Fordetailed discussion see Analytical Biochemistry, Vol. 195, pages330–351, 1991 which is incorporated by reference as if fully set forthherein.)

To illustrate imaging by detecting migration pathlengths, we use anexample of photon migration in a tissue with a strongly absorbingobject, a perfect absorber(μ_(a)→∞) of radius R. Referring to FIGS. 5A,5B, and 5C the distribution of pathlengths defines an optical field thatexists between a point detector, D, and source, S, separated by distanceρ and located on the exterior of an examined tissue which is asemi-infinite, strongly scattering medium. As shown in FIG. 5A,infinitely far away from the field, a perfect absorber does not alterthe banana-shaped optical field of photons emitted by source S anddetected at detector D. As the object enters the optical field (FIG.5B), the photons which have migrated the farthest distance from D and Sare eliminated by the absorption process inside the perfect absorber ofradius R. Since photons which travel the longest pathlengths areabsorbed, the approach of an object shortens the distribution ofpathlengths, or alternatively, shortens the average pathlength <L>. Asthe object moves closer, and the optical field surrounds the object(FIG. 5C), some of the detected photons have travelled “around” theobject, which is detected as lengthening the distribution ofpathlengths. Thus, the average pathlength measurement can reveallocation of a strongly absorbing component of a tissue (e.g., tumor orlocalized bleeding).

Even though this pathlength computation approach requires in most casesextensive computational capabilities, it can yield useful information inthe localization procedures and can provide an useful supplement to theabove described directional approach.

In another preferred embodiment, shown in FIG. 11, a low frequencyimaging system 100 includes two light sources 102 and 104 (e.g.,tungsten lamps, LEDs) of electromagnetic radiation of a visible orinfrared wavelength. The sources 102 and 104 introduce into examinedtissue 8 at input locations 101 and 103, respectively, the radiation ofknown intensities that define a null plane 105 in tissue 8. A detectionport, optically connected to a detector 106, is located at a detectionlocation 107 of null plane 105. Detector 106 detects sequentiallyradiation that has migrated from the input locations 101 and 103 todetection location 107. A detector circuit 110, connected to detector106, receives sequentially two detection signals 108, the firstcorresponding to radiation that has migrated from first input location101 to detection location 107 and the second corresponding to radiationthat has migrated from second location 103 to detection location 107.Detector circuit 110, includes a sample-and-hold circuit and asubtraction circuit constructed to subtract the first detection signalfrom the second detection signal. A processor 120 controls the entireoperation, receives the differential signal 119 from detector circuit110, governs the operation of intensity controller 130, and sendsimaging data to a display 140.

Intensity controller 130 regulates the timing and the intensity on theradiation emitted from each source. For equal intensities of the emittedradiation, null plane 105 is located at a midpoint between the twooptical field patterns generated from sources 102 and 104. Detector 106is located at the null plane or at a known location relative to the nullplane.

Referring to FIG. 11A, detector circuit 110 receives detection signal108 from a diode detector 106. The circuit enables correction for thedark current/noise that comprises background light, DC offset of theoperational amplifiers, photodiode dark current, temperature effects onthe outputs of individual components and variations due to changingenvironment. The circuit also enables subtraction of the first detectionsignal from the second detection signal.

The system performs data acquisition in two cycles, each having foursteps synchronized by its internal oscillator. In the first cycle,detecting light that has migrated from input location 101 to detectionlocation 107, the first step is performed by having the light sourcesoff. The output is directed to an integrator 112 c and integrationcapacitor 113 c is charged to the dark level voltage. In the secondstep, the first light source is turned on. The preamplifier output thatcorresponds to the intensity of the detected light is directed tointegrator 112 c in a way to charge capacitor 113 c with current ofpolarity opposite to the polarity of the charging current in the firststep. This is achieved using appropriate ON/OFF combination of switchesA and B. The voltage of capacitor 113 c is charging to a value which, atthe end of this step, represents the total signal minus the dark levelnoise signal. In the third step, both switches A and B are turned OFF todisconnect both the positive unity gain and the negative unity gainoperational amplifiers (112 a and 112 b). Then, the output of integrator112 c is moved via switch C to a hold circuit with integrator 112 dwhich also functions as a low pass filter. The output is the firstdetection signal corrected for the background noise. In the fourth step,the switches A, B and C are open and switch D is closed in order todischarge capacitor 113 c through a 47K resistor. At this point, thecircuit of integrator 112 c is reset to zero and ready for the firststep of the second detection cycle.

The second detection cycle is again performed in four steps employingthe second light source (L2) instead of the first light source (L1).After the second detection signal, corrected for the background noise,is obtained, the two detection signals are subtracted in module 110B andthe deferential signal 119 is sent to processor 120.

Spectrophotometer 100 has two equivalent arrangements. The firstarrangement shown in FIG. 11 includes two sources 102, 104 (or a singlesource optically coupled to two input ports) and single detector 106with detection port 107 located on the null plane 105. The secondarrangement includes a single source and two detectors. The source isoptically coupled to an input port located on the null plane defined bythe positions of the two detectors (or a single detector opticallycoupled to two detection ports). For substantially “homogeneous” tissue(i.e., normal tissue) or if a tumor is located symmetrically on the nullplane, the detectors will detect a symmetric signal. Otherwise, thedetectors will detect a asymmetric signal due to the modification of theoptical field caused by the tumor having different scattering orabsorption properties than the normal tissue.

The source-detector geometry may be a transmission geometry as shown inFIG. 11 or a reflection geometry as shown in FIG. 14A. Anothersource-detector probe that utilizes a reflection geometry is disclosedin International Publication No. WO 92/20273, filed May 18, 1992, whichis incorporated by reference as if fully set forth herein.

To examine a volume of tissue, the system may sweeps the null planeposition over the examined tissue by changing the relative value of theintensities of the emitted radiation. Detector 106, which may include anarray of detectors, is again located at the null plane or at a knownlocation relative to the null plane. Alternatively, the null planescanning is achieved by moving the input ports and the detection port todifferent locations, or by scanning the introduced light over the tissuesurface by orienting a mirror.

FIGS. 12 and 13 display another embodiment of the low frequency imagingsystem that utilizes a two dimensional array of light sources. Referringto FIG. 12, imaging system 140 includes four sources 142, 144, 146, and148 (labeled W, N, E, and S) which are turned on and off as shown in atiming diagram 150. The system uses two differential detectors 152 and154, located relative to the null plane, which produce deferentialsignals 119 and 199 a, respectively, corresponding to the radiationemitted from sources 144, 148, and sources 142, 146. Referring to FIG.13, imaging system 150 utilizes a two dimensional, dual wavelengtharray. The system operates based on similar principles as described forthe imaging systems of FIGS. 11 and 12.

To increase resolution of the system an exogenous pigment sensitive tothe introduced radiation (a light sensitive contrast agent) can beintroduced, e.g., by injection, into the examined tissue. Then, theimaging system uses radiation of a wavelength sensitive to the exogenouspigment that also may be preferentially absorbed in a tumor located inthe examined tissue. Alternatively, the imaging system uses radiation ofa wavelength sensitive to an endogenous pigment of the examined tissue.

FIGS. 14 and 14A show a scanning system 160 constructed for imaging ofbreast tissue. Scanning system 160 may employ spectroscopic systems ofFIG. 1, 2 or 3, or systems of FIG. 11, 12 or 13. Scanning system 160includes an optical coupler 162, which may have cubical or cylindricalshape and is filled with optical medium 164. Optical coupler 162 ispositioned over the breast near the chest wall. As described above inU.S. Pat. No. 5,402,778, which is incorporated by reference, the opticalproperties, pressure and volume of medium 164 nay be controlled by anexternal system connected to the coupler by a set of tubes. The opticalmatching fluid (e.g., twice-diluted J&J baby lotion) is contained withinpliable, optically an transparent barrier. The inside walls of coupler162 may be coated with a film that reflects light in the visible or nearinfra-red range back to the matching fluid to prevent escape of photonsfrom the tissue surface. The optical coupler may have different sizes ormay have an adjustable volume so that the coupler can have a selecteddistance between the breast surface and the inside walls. (The preferreddistance is about 1 centimeter, but for a very small tissue a largerdistance is preferable to achieve semi-infinite boundary conditions.)Thus the coupler is also useful for examination of the breast of a smallsize or after a surgical removal of the breast tissue. After placementof coupler 162, the volume of medium 164 is adjusted so that the barrierfits snugly around the examined breast. Alternatively, the opticalmedium is a pliable solid, for example, an absorbing gel containingmetallic or oxide spherical particles, silky glass beads as scatterersor a suitable plastic material.

FIG. 14A depicts a set of couplers 162A and 162B for simultaneousscanning of both breasts. Attached to each coupler are source-detectorprobes (168A, 168B, 168C, 168D, 169A, 169B, 169C, 168D), which includeone or more optical sources or detectors described above. The probes aremovable on a rail 170. In an automatic positioning system, each probe isconnected to a servo motor (step motor) that is operated by acontroller. Depending on the spectroscopic system, a fiber 172 may beused to collect, at a detection port 174, radiation that has migrated inthe examined tissue and couple the radiation to a detector.Alternatively, fiber 172 may be used to couple, at input port 174,radiation to the examined tissue.

In an electro-optic scan, a computer controller maintains coordinatedpositions of the probes to the selected combination of the transmittersand receivers. The scan is performed on a single breast orsimultaneously on the contralateral breast. The sensitivity of thesimultaneous scan is increased be measuring a differential signal. Acomputer displays the detected signal or the differential signal in a 3dimensional coordinate system. To increase the resolution, a contrastagent (e.g., cardio-green, indocyanine-green) which is preferentiallyaccumulated in a tumor may by injected intravenously. Several scans areperformed to observe the time dependence of the decay and identify alocation of a suspected anomaly. The system can also calculate thescattering coefficient and absorption coefficient of the suspectedanomaly as in U.S. Pat. No. 5,402,778 and the reference cited therein.

The scan may be combined with a needle localization procedure, X-raymammography or an MRI scan as is described in International ApplicationWO 95/02987 (PCT/US94/07984, filed Jul. 15, 1994).

1. A spectroscopic system for examination of biological tissue of asubject comprising: at least one source of electromagnetic radiation ofa visible or infrared wavelength selected to be scattered and absorbedwhile migrating in the tissue, said wavelength being sensitive to anexogenous pigment in the examined tissue, said source being opticallycoupled to at least two input ports; a detection port optically coupledto a detector, said detector connected to a detector circuit; means forpositioning a first input port and a second input port relative toselected input locations of a subject; means for selecting for eachinput port first and second radiation intensities to be introduced tothe tissue, said selected radiation intensities defining a null plane inthe tissue; means for positioning said detection port relative to aselected detection location of the examined tissue corresponding to saidnull plane, said input locations and detection location defining avolume of the examined tissue of the subject; said at least one sourceconstructed to emit radiation of said first intensity for introductioninto the tissue, at said first input port; said detector constructed todetect, at said detection port, said first radiation that has migratedin the examined tissue; means for storing, in said detector circuit, afirst detector signal corresponding to said first detected radiation;said at least one source constructed to emit radiation of said secondintensity for introduction into the tissue, at said second input port;said detector constructed to detect, at said detection port, said secondradiation that has migrated in the examined tissue; means for storing,in said detector circuit, a second detector signal corresponding to saidsecond detected radiation; and means for subtracting said first detectorsignal from said second detector signal to obtain processed datacorresponding to properties of said tissue volume.
 2. The spectroscopicsystem of claim 1 wherein said detector circuit being adapted forstoring and subtracting said first detector signal and said seconddetector signal in an analog form.
 3. The spectroscopic system of claim1 further comprising, means for converting said first and seconddetection signals to a digital form, said system further comprising adigital circuit for subtracting said first detector signal and saidsecond detector signal digitally.
 4. The spectroscopic system of claim 1wherein said means for positioning said input and detection ports at therespective selected locations include means for placing said ports onthe surface of the examined tissue.
 5. The spectroscopic system of claim1 wherein said means for positioning said input and detection portsinclude means for orienting said ports relative to said input anddetection locations.
 6. The spectroscopic system of claim 1 wherein saidmeans for orienting said input ports include means for directing anoptical element of said port to said location.
 7. The spectroscopicsystem of claim 1 wherein said means for positioning are adapted tosweep said null plane and said detector over at least a portion of saidvolume of the examined tissue.
 8. The spectroscopic system of claim 1wherein said means for positioning said input ports include means fordirecting an optical element of said port to said input location.
 9. Thespectroscopic system of claim 1 wherein said means for selecting saidfirst and second radiation intensities are adapted to sweep said nullplane over at least a portion of said volume of the examined tissue andsaid system further comprising means for positioning said detection portto detection locations corresponding to said swept null plane.
 10. Thespectroscopic system of claim 1 further comprising means for imaging theexamined tissue including said tissue region of different scattering orabsorptive properties.
 11. The spectroscopic system of claim 1 furthercomprising means for locating, in said tissue volume, a tissue regionexhibiting different scattering or absorptive properties than the restof the examined tissue volume.
 12. The spectroscopic system of claim 11further comprising means for imaging the examined tissue including saidtissue region of different scattering or absorptive properties.
 13. Thespectroscopic system of claim 1 further comprising means for displayingan image of the examined tissue by utilizing said processed data andrelative locations of said input and detection ports.
 14. Thespectroscopic system of claim 1 further comprising intensity controlmeans constructed to regulate intensities of radiation emitted from saidfirst and second input ports.
 15. The spectroscopic system of claim 14wherein said intensity control means is further constructed to regulatesaid intensities in a manner that sweeps said null plane over at least aportion of said volume of the examined tissue.
 16. The spectroscopicsystem of claim 15 wherein said positioning means further comprisingdisplacement means constructed to displace said detection port todetection locations corresponding to a location of said null plane. 17.The spectroscopic system of claim 1 wherein said means for subtractingfurther includes an analog to digital converter, connected to saidsample-and-hold circuit, constructed to digitize said first and seconddetection signals to produce digital detection signals, said means forsubtracting subtracting said digital detection signals to obtain saidprocessed data.
 18. The spectroscopic system of claim 1 furthercomprising: an image processor connected to receive said processed datafrom said processor and create image data; and a display, connected tosaid image processor, constructed to display said image datarepresenting the examined tissue.
 19. The spectroscopic system of claim18 wherein said image processor is further constructed to create imagedata of said located tissue region exhibiting different scattering orabsorptive properties; and said display constructed to display saidimage data.
 20. A spectroscopic system for examination of biologicaltissue of a subject comprising: at least one source of electromagneticradiation of a visible or infrared wavelength selected to be scatteredand absorbed while migrating in the tissue, said source being opticallycoupled to at least two input ports, a detection port optically coupledto a detector, said detector connected to a detector circuit; means forpositioning a first input Port and a second input port relative toselected input locations of a subject, said positioning means furthercomprising displacement means constructed to displace said input portsto selected locations; means for selecting for each input port first andsecond radiation intensities to be introduced to the tissue, saidselected radiation intensities defining a null plane in the tissue;means for positioning said detection port relative to a selecteddetection location of the examined tissue corresponding to said nullplane, said input locations and detection location defining a volume ofthe examined tissue of the subject; said at least one source constructedto emit radiation of said first intensity for introduction into thetissue, at said first input port; said detector constructed to detect,at said detection port, said first radiation that has migrated in theexamined tissue; means for storing, in said detector circuit, a firstdetector signal corresponding to said first detected radiation; said atleast one source constructed to emit radiation of said second intensityfor introduction into the tissue, at said second input port; saiddetector constructed to detect, at said detection port, said secondradiation that has migrated in the examined tissue; means for storing,in said detector circuit, a second detector signal corresponding to saidsecond detected radiation; and means for subtracting said first detectorsignal from said second detector signal to obtain processed datacorresponding to properties of said tissue volume.
 21. The spectroscopicsystem of claim 20 comprising a processor constructed and arranged tolocate, in said tissue volume, a tissue region exhibiting differentscattering or absorptive properties than the rest of the examined tissuevolume.
 22. A spectroscopic system for examination of biological tissueof a subject comprising: at least one source of electromagneticradiation of a visible or infrared wavelength selected to be scatteredand absorbed while migrating in the tissue, said source being opticallycoupled to at least two input ports, a detection port optically coupledto a detector, said detector connected to a detector circuit, whereinsaid input or detection ports are arranged in a linear array; means forpositioning a first input port and a second input port relative toselected input locations of a subject, means for selecting for eachinput port first and second radiation intensities to be introduced tothe tissue, said selected radiation intensities defining a null plane inthe tissue; means for positioning said detection port relative to aselected detection location of the examined tissue corresponding to saidnull plane, said input locations and detection location defining avolume of the examined tissue of the subject; said at least one sourceconstructed to emit radiation of said first intensity for introductioninto the tissue, at said first input port; said detector constructed todetect, at said detection port, said first radiation that has migratedin the examined tissue; means for storing, in said detector circuit, afirst detector signal corresponding to said first detected radiation;said at least one source constructed to emit radiation of said secondintensity for introduction into the tissue, at said second input port;said detector constructed to detect, at said detection port, said secondradiation that has migrated in the examined tissue; means for storing,in said detector circuit, a second detector signal corresponding to saidsecond detected radiation; and means for subtracting said first detectorsignal from said second detector signal to obtain processed datacorresponding to properties of said tissue volume.
 23. The spectroscopicsystem of claim 22 comprising a processor constructed and arranged tolocate, in said tissue volume, a tissue region exhibiting differentscattering or absorptive properties than the rest of the examined tissuevolume.
 24. A spectroscopic system for examination of biological tissueof a subject comprising: at least one source of electromagneticradiation of a visible or infrared wavelength selected to be scatteredand absorbed while migrating in the tissue, said source being opticallycoupled to at least two input ports, a detection port optically coupledto a detector, said detector connected to a detector circuit, whereinsaid input or detection ports are arranged a two dimensional array;means for positioning a first input port and a second input portrelative to selected input locations of a subject, means for selectingfor each input port first and second radiation intensities to beintroduced to the tissue, said selected radiation intensities defining anull plane in the tissue; means for positioning said detection portrelative to a selected detection location of the examined tissuecorresponding to said null plane, said input locations and detectionlocation defining a volume of the examined tissue of the subject; saidat least one source constructed to emit radiation of said firstintensity for introduction into the tissue, at said first input port;said detector constructed to detect, at said detection port, said firstradiation that has migrated in the examined tissue; means for storing,in said detector circuit, a first detector signal corresponding to saidfirst detected radiation; said at least one source constructed to emitradiation of said second intensity for introduction into the tissue, atsaid second input port; said detector constructed to detect, at saiddetection port, said second radiation that has migrated in the examinedtissue; means for storing, in said detector circuit, a second detectorsignal corresponding to said second detected radiation; and means forsubtracting said first detector signal from said second detector signalto obtain processed data corresponding to properties of said tissuevolume.
 25. The spectroscopic system of claim 24 comprising a processorconstructed and arranged to locate, in said tissue volume, a tissueregion exhibiting different scattering or absorptive properties than therest of the examined tissue volume.
 26. A spectroscopic system forexamination of biological tissue of a subject, comprising: a source ofelectromagnetic radiation of a visible or infrared wavelength selectedto be scattered and absorbed while migrating in the tissue, said sourcebeing optically coupled to an input port, at least two detection portsoptically coupled to at least one detector, said detector connected to adetector circuit; means for positioning said input port relative toselected input locations of the tissue; means for positioning a firstdetection port and a second detection port relative to selecteddetection locations of the examined tissue, said locations defining anull plane in the tissue a volume of the examined tissue of the subject;said source constructed to emit radiation of selected intensity into thetissue, at said input port; said at least one detector constructed todetect, at said first detection port, radiation that has migrated in theexamined tissue and means for storing, in said detector circuit, a firstdetector signal corresponding to said detected radiation; said at leastone detector constructed to detect, at said second detection port,radiation that has migrated in the examined tissue and means forstoring, in said detector circuit, a second detector signalcorresponding to said detected radiation; analog-to-digital converterfor converting said first and second detection signals to a digitalform; and a digital processor constructed to subtract said firstdetector signal from said second detector signal digitally to obtainprocessed data corresponding to properties of said tissue volume. 27.The spectroscopic system of claim 26 wherein said means for positioningsaid input and detection ports at the respective selected locationsinclude means for placing said ports on the surface of the examinedtissue.
 28. The spectroscopic system of claim 26 wherein said means forpositioning said input and detection ports include means for orientingsaid ports relative to said input and detection locations.
 29. Thespectroscopic system of claim 26 wherein said means for positioning areadapted to sweep said null plane and said detection ports over at leasta portion of said volume of the examined tissue.
 30. The spectroscopicsystem of claim 26 wherein said detector circuit is adapted to changethe relative sensitivity of detection at said first and second detectionports in order to sweep said null plane over at least a portion of saidvolume of the examined tissue, and said system further comprising meansfor positioning said input port to input locations corresponding to saidswept null plane.
 31. The spectroscopic system of claim 26 furthercomprising means for locating, in said tissue volume, a tissue regionexhibiting different scattering or absorptive properties than the restof the examined tissue volume.
 32. The spectroscopic system of claim 31further comprising means for imaging the examined tissue including saidtissue region of different scattering or absorptive properties.
 33. Thespectroscopic system claim 32 further comprising means for displaying animage of the examined tissue by utilizing to said processed data andrelative locations of said input and detection ports.
 34. Thespectroscopic system of claim 26 wherein said input or detection portsare arranged in a linear array.
 35. The spectroscopic system of claim 26claim wherein said input or detection ports are arranged a twodimensional array.
 36. The spectroscopic system of claim 26 furthercomprising: an image processor connected to receive said processed datafrom said processor and create image data; and a display, connected tosaid image processor, constructed to display said image datarepresenting the examined tissue.
 37. The spectroscopic system of claim36 wherein said image processor is further constructed to create imagedata of said located tissue region exhibiting different scattering orabsorptive properties; and said display constructed to display saidimage data.
 38. The spectroscopic system of claim 26 wherein saidprocessor is further constructed to locate, in said tissue volume, atissue region exhibiting different scattering or absorptive propertiesthan the rest of the examined tissue volume.
 39. The spectroscopicsystem of claim 26 wherein said wavelength is sensitive to an endogenouspigment of the examined tissue.
 40. The spectroscopic system of claim 26wherein said wavelength is sensitive to an exogenous pigment of theexamined tissue.